THE GATE OF EXTRINSICALITY

Maman S. Mahayana

Return to the Right Path

Compared to the works of the other country literary life, Indonesian literature, or novel in particular, is actually born and grown up in a specific socio-cultural dynamic. It is specific because of its ability to manifest the Indonesian heterogeneity along with their various cultures. Indonesian novels seem to be the representation of the spirit, or even the culture of the Indonesian ethnic and its socio-cultural environment. Isn’t it the fact that a literary man was born, grows up, influenced, and made uneasy by the dynamics and various conflict occurring in their surrounding socio-cultural life? The discussion leads to complexity when we relate the literary men with the ethnic cultural problem as directly become the individual problem against it ethnic community. Therefore, it is impossible to make uniformity when we talk about the ethnic culture and Indonesian ethnicity as a whole when it is related to Indonesian literature. However, literary work is basically typical and unique. Every piece of work is different from the other because of its uniqueness. And from the uniqueness come the variants, heterogeneity, and cultural affluence.

It is clearly shown by the Indonesian novel. In their heterogeneity, Indonesian novels express ethnic cultures which have existed, dwelt, and revealed in behavior, attitude, etiquettes an ethics, action and expression, philosophy and views on environment, and even to the aesthetics insight. As its consequence, it is not fair to equate A.A Navis’ religiosity to that of Achdiat Kartamihardja or Ayip Rosidi. And from the Indonesian nationality point of view, it is also an absurdity to equalize Umar Kayam nationalism to that of AA Navis, Putu Wijaya or Iwan Simatupang. Even from the similar ethnic culture, it is impossible to draw the parallel lines between the Javanese of Danarto and the Javanese of Ahmad Tohari, Umar Kayam, Ahmad Tohari, or Arswendo Atmowiloto. Those facts above show that Indonesian novels keep their uniqueness and heterogeneity.

In a nutshell, Indonesian literature is a colorful landscape. It is a beauty of rainbow, amazing and mesmerizing!

The birth process – only if the Indonesian literature leads the process called birth – was not the term of simplicity as stated by numerous Indonesian literary observers. Indonesian literature neither did descend from heaven nor the result of the “Abracadabra” rub of the Aladdin lamp. Indonesian literature, on the other hand, is the result of a very long, complicated, and continues process without vacuum. A number of monument resulted from the Indonesian literary persons become the terminal or merely a parking lot for temporary stop just to continue the journey. Terminal and parking lot is not a permanent stand. It is only a milestone to measure the journey to a never ending journey of the time.

In this context, it is not appropriate, if it cannot be called naïve to say that Indonesian literature was born in a particular time with its particular characteristic. The dichotomy of Indonesian literary period between old and new, traditional and modern has no distinctive border similar to that of the border between death and alive, worldly and heavenly life. On the other hand, the literary life is in condition of the nuance continuity in which the existent is related to the previous period. Indonesian literature exists as a result of the process of continuity. Therefore, Lo the Indonesian observers do rush back to the right path. Return the Indonesian literature to its real existence, to its process of its genesis, and to the continual dynamic of the literature!

Before the birth of Balai Pustaka which later gives the strong influence to Indonesian literary development, several pieces of literary works at this time had actually shown the modern characteristics. Several novels written by Malay-Chinese descendants were very popular among their audience. Far beyond the time, we could mention the works of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir Munsyi Kisah Pelayaran Abdullah ke Negeri Jedah (Abdullah Voyage to Jeddah) or Hikayat Abdullah (Abdullah Chronicle) had shown the modern characteristics as well. Mentioning the name of the author, proposing socio-cultural problems, stating years and way of description, a literary work could be considered to show the modernity. Putting his discussion in dichotomy, H.B, Jassin put Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir Munsyi works in the transition era between old and new Indonesian literature. But a problem then appears, is it true that there is no other works between the era of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir Munsyi and the establishment of Balai Pustaka?

Is it so easy for the Indonesian literary observers to draw demarcation lines between old (traditional) and new (modern) Indonesian literary period? Binary position to separate Indonesian literature into two periods, old and new which makes Indonesian literature as if it is a geographical bounIt is a wrong assumption to equalize the literary movement to the geographical boundary. Or others, it is as if the political movement to name literary period based on the shift of political power or government ruler.

Literature, as inseparable dynamic of national culture, will be born, grow, and move according to the social dynamic. There is a continuum and not a sudden birth of literature. It is not an instant baby. It was born through the long anxiety concerning social, cultural, or even political – ideology, and the intellectual dissatisfaction. The process rolls, jumps, or even explodes, following the dynamic and movement of its society. The relationship between literature and society frequently shows reciprocal influence. They reciprocally show their power, domination, and influence. It is so complicated and problematic. Then, it is ironical that the literature which is born from a very complex problem will be simply taken a strike line to separate the former which is considered traditional and the later which is called modern.

The reductionism view will not only put the more formerly produced literature into a marginal, old-fashioned, but also throw it away to the garbage can. Meanwhile the new literature is put in the respected, civilized position along with its advantages. This is the misleading view which, in turn, put anything traditional into something to put in a burial. It is also a hegemonic view to put one side as a ruler along with the influence to destroy anything and in the other side is put in the marginal, the losers, and put aside.

The establishment of Balai Pustaka (1908, 1917) has put the other publishers as the illegal one. Hence, Balai Pustaka regards himself as the only publisher who takes the important role for the birth and development of Indonesian modern literature. It seems to be incomplete to talk about Indonesian literature without mentioning Balai Pustaka. As a result, the publishers outside Balai Pustaka are underestimated or, even worse, they are not reckoned at all. If they exist, they are called the publishers of “illegal text”, cheap novel, and the management is called “the book sellers with impurity”. This is the stigma made by the Dutch colonial.

The book written by A. Teeuw, Sastra Baru Indonesia (New Indonesian Literature: Nusa Indah, 1978) and Sastra Indonesia Modern II (Modern Indonesian Literature: Jakarta : Pustaka Jaya, 1990), emphasized its discussion on the Balai Pustaka authors. Meanwhile, according to the literary system, a text is not automatically fall down from heaven.1 It is full of various social, politics, economy, culture problem as a background and foreground of the text birth, the publishing process. It is not as easy as it seems to be. There are a lot of complexity. The problem which has not yet studied by the Indonesian literary observers.

In relation with image creation made by the Dutch colonial to the private publishers, the significant research has been made by Claudine Salmon. Salmon’s research does not only show that Indonesian literature has been started long before the establishment of Balai Pustaka, but it also proves that the quality is even as good as that of Balai Pustaka. From there, Salmon also shows that the birth of Indonesian literature is not pioneered by the establishment of Balai Pustaka, but it is long before this foundation exists. Therefore, until recently, Salmon’s research has given important information about the works of pre-Balai Pustaka period. It is then can be placed as the literature which relates to the works of post-Abdullah Munsyi, although the language use is different. It is possible that not only Chinese-Malay language was used as literary language, but also a Malay used among the nobles or what is called high-Malay.

The biography of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir Munsyi along with his works and the picture of his period has been completely shon in Amion Sweeneys two works Karya Lengkap Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir Munsyi (The Complete Works of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir Munsyi) Volume I (Jakarta: Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia, 2005, xxi + 370 pages) and Karya Lengkap Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir Munsyi Jilid II: Puisi dan Ceretera Munsyi (The Complete Works of Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir Munsyi Volume II: Poems and Stories (Jakarta: Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia, 2005, xxi + 370 pages ). According to Amin Sweney’s view in his two works, it is clearly seen that:

1.

It is not anymore relevant to divide Indonesian Literature in dichotomy into old (traditional) and new (modern) Indonesian literary period.
2.

The works of Abdullah Munsyi and literary man of his time shows that there is a significant phase in Malayan (Indonesian) literature which subsequently moves until the discovery of printing machine to disseminate the literary works in mass, wider area and better speed.
3.

The works of Abdullah Munsyi and literary man of his time shows more significant evident about the red-line between the works at the time and the subsequent period, particularly the works prior to Balai Pustaka.

After the establishment of Balai Pustaka, the Indonesian literary journey walks hand in hand with the development of literature outside of Balai Pustaka due to the support given by the private sector and publisher (of newspaper and magazine). Meanwhile, various root of tradition and ethnic culture keep developing among the conflicts with the external culture. So, in one way, Balai Pustaka put his own position in the development of Indonesian literature, particularly in his participation in the establishment of Indonesan Language ( Malayan language using van Ophuijsen), on the other hand, publishers outside of Balai Pustaka along with local tradition and culture also develop in his own way. The later emergence in the works of Balai Pustaka, particularly pre-independence novels, is the struggle of our literary man against the local tradition of which they consider to be hampering the freedom for gaining modernity.

Sitti Nurbaya (1922), a novel by Merari Siregar and Salah Asuhan (1928) by Marah Rusli are good examples of how both Marah Rusli and Merari Siregar question the social tradition in one way, and in the other way, protest against Dutch policy which is too severe, rasialist, and unfair. Later, how do they wrap the idea in such a way that the works could be published by Balai Pustaka, an institution which is basically established to legitimate the Dutch colonial power? Those are the extrisic aspect of the two novel to be discussed in this book.

Before the discussion of the two novel, the background of Balai Pustaka is proposed to give a rather complete description about the existence of Balai Pustaka in its relationship with the Dutch colonial policy. Subsequently, development of various theme at that time will also be talked about. It is expected that other novels which have not been discussed here will be the material for those who are interested to see the extrinsic aspect of Indonesian modern novels which are actually various.

Still in relation with the Balai Pustaka as the agent of Dutch colonal, Hulubalang Raja (1932) by Nur Sutan Iskandar proposes not the problem of cultural tradition but the history of his community (Minangkabau). It is different cases from that of the publishing of Sitti Nurbaya and Salah Asuhan.

The next extrinsic aspect to be discussed in this book is the novels published after independence period. Senja di Jakarta (Twillight in Jakarta : 1970; 1992) by Muchtar Lubis is seen from the sociological point of view to depict the social condition around 1950-1960s. Koong (1975) by Iwan Simatupang, for example, is discussed in its relationship with existentialism; Kubah ( Mosque Dome: 1980) by Ahmad Tohari, also discussed in its relationship with Javanese Philosophy and Existentialism; next is the novel by Umar Kayam, Para Priyayi (The Noblemen: 1992) is not only considered from its relation to Javanese philosophy but also in its position in the map of Indonesian modern novels. There are some discussion to Ahmad Tohari’s short novels in Republika newspaper with the title Lingkar Tanah Lingkar Air (Circle of Land and Water (1993) . The discussion is seen in the contexts of islamic rebellion DI/TII (late 1940 until 1950).

In conclusion, observing the extrinsic aspect of the above novels, it is expected that we can put the works in the socio-cultural and historical contexts of the respective writer. It is absolutely true that the discussion has not been elaborately conducted and has not represented the whole Indonesian modern novel. Further research is still required to obtain more comprehensive discussion.

Controversial Discourse

Since Indonesian Literary and Language Symposium, arranged on October 27, 1966 and followed with Literary Criticism Discussion on October 31, 19682 leading the polemic between M.S. Hutagalung3 and several literary men, including Arief Budiman and Goenawan Mohammad, criticism as a part of academic life becomes more aparent. At least, literary criticism as a part of academic activities get its establishment. Due to Faculty of Literature, the University of Indonesia’s location in Rawamangun, Jakarta, the criticism is then called “Aliran Rawamangun”(Rawamangun School).

Basically, the foundation of this school states proposes the whole analysis of the works element to gain the literary aesthetic. In this case, literary work is placed and treated as an organic structure – of which the whole organization is constructed on the correlative elements. Because of the correlative elements, the analysis should be based on the correlativeness among the function of the elements as a whole, and not as separable elements. Therefore, the emphasis is on the functional relationship among the elements. In other words, the focus of attention, according to Rawamangun School, is the work itself in which the elements has functional correlation “Scientifically, this concept is called ergocentric, or it can be included to structuralism.”4

Rawamangun school gives a significant influence on the academic life. Several faculty of letters, of both private and state owned universities, in their thesis or final assignment writing, use the steps suggested by this school. The literary criticism which studies the elements of literature is called the intrinsic approach; it is the approach to see the literary work from inside; from the elements of the object itself. A book written by Panuti Sudjiman, Memahami Cerita Rekaan (Understanding Fiction: Pustaka Jaya, 1988) could be considered as a good example on how to apply the intrinsic approach.

The rapid development of the west literary criticism of which influence the academic life in the various college in Indonesia, there is a new tendency to introduce more improved Indonesian literary criticism than that in the west. More recently, spirit to change the role and function of the texts to the wider scope, namely socio-cultural context or even ideology emerges. Edward Said view on Orientalism5 and the introduction of post-colonial criticism offers other perspectives on the Indonesian literary criticism. A piece of works does not only textually applied as suggested by the structuralism point of view, but also analyzed from the socio-culture when the work is published. This view is still attempted to apply in the academic life, particularly in the thesis writing.

Recently, many thesis or dissertations attempt to analyze literary works according to various approaches which relate the texts to something outside the text themselves. Since 1970, for example, Sapardi Djoko Damono set the subjects of Sociology of Literature and Comparative Literature which later on produce a number of paper, thesis, or even dissertation, which are written on the bases of sociological approach and comparative literature. Later, this condition becomes more favorable because of more various seminars are arranged on this subject. On January 19-20, 1990 and December 21-22, 1990, for example, Faculty of Literature, the University of Indonesia arranged Comparative Literature Seminar I and II. In the subsequent years, just to mention several activities, the similar faculty arrange Literature and Philosophy seminar (January 29-30, 1992). Workshop on Literature and Psychoanalysis (4-9 May, 1992); Literature and History (30-31 October 1992) as well as the seminar on Literature and Religion (December 10, 1994). This seminar not only contribute influences on the life of literary criticism in the campus, or in the Faculty of Literature, the University of Indonesia in particular (this faculty now change the name into Faculty of Cultural Science (Fakultas Ilmu Pengetahuan Budaya or FIB-UI), but also contribute various approaches for literary research. The last two decade thesis and paper written in FIB-UI are evidence of the various theoretical framework and approaches as applied in the academic writing.6

The academic literary criticism develop rapidly, however, the condition has not fully supported by the publishing interest to disseminate the result. Unsur Adat Minangkabau dalam Sastra Indonesia 1922-1956 (Elements of Minangkabau Tradition in Indonesian Literature : Balai Pustgaka, 1994), for example, tries to reveal one extrinsicality aspect in the novel with Minangkabau background7 . The textual discussion has successfully revealed several socio-cultural factors which provide the setting of the novels. In addition, it gradually reveals the cultural root which heavily influences the authors in their creative process.

Previously, Jacob Sumardjo in his book Segi Sosiologis Novel Indonesia (Sociological Aspects of Indonesian Novel: Pustaka Prima, 1981), tries to reveal Indonesian novel extrinsicality. However, the title of the book does not represent the content. The book composed from his various articles emphasizes more on the other factor outside the work, such as publication, authors and their hometowns, or authorship tradition. Even, the discussion of two Selasih’s novels, Kalau tak Untung (Balau Pustaka, 1933), Pengaruh Keadaan (Balai Pustaka, 1937), and Hamidah’s novel, Kehilangan Mestika, consists more on the content of the novel rather than the analysis. We can say that there is no sociological discussion in this book. 8

In 1990, Th. Sri Rahayu Prihatmi publishes the book Dari Mochtar Lubis hingga Mangunwijaya (Balai Pustaka). This book discusses Indonesian 26 novels from 14 authors. The discussion seems to be briefly written. Although Prihatmi does not mention abut the approach, most of them apply intrinsic approach. Some of them are intrinsically discussed but the discussion is theme related. This book, however, is a significant effort in introducing Indonesian novels. It’s intrinsic approach in the novel discussion can be position as a supplement for Panuti Sudjiman theory, Memahami Cerita Rekaan (Pustaka Jaya, 1988).

A research conducted by Sapardi Djoko Damono Novel Sastra Indonesia sebelum Perang (Pre-War Indonesian Novels: Jakarta, Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, 1979), can be recently called the most important study on Indonesian novels.9 In this case, Sapardi Djoko Damono sees sociological aspect of Indonesian Novels prior to independence although the discussion itself is not quite elaborate.

Actually, the step taken by Sapardi Djoko Damono does not only reveal various sociological factor which is located outside of the text, but it also give the new comprehension to us that something outside of the text influence the meaning of the text. In this context, the understanding of the extrinsic aspect of the literature (novel) – should not – be neglected in order that we can understand the meaning of the work more completely.

Damono’s research actually give us opportunity to make other researches both on the novels published before or other independence. It is essential that in our analysis we have also to consider the background of the writers. The writers are born, grown, and surrounded by various cultural background. Consequently, it results in the various spirit of Indonesian novels. It is written in the same language, however, the capability and the mastery of the Indonesian language is heavily influenced by their regional elements.

Research on Para Priyayi, a novel by Umar Kayam, is an example. Why are there many Javanese expression, idiom and terminology?; why do not Marah Rusli Abdul Muis or Nur Sutan Iskandar’s novel contain the regional terminology? From here, it is clearly seen that the place where an author is born will affect the way of their respective expression, style, or diction. As such, it goes without saying that we cannot loose the problem of the modern Indonesian extrinsicality. Many interesting aspects which could not be revealed in a text; and such understanding can only be achieved when we put the text in the historical context where the work is born, “the spirit of the period” or other socio-cultural factors of the writer. This understanding is similarly essential to the understanding of the text itself.

Now, the discussion about Indonesian literature seems to be far from sensation. In such a serenity, several theory and approach is introduced by several Indonesian Literary Critics from abroad. A comprehensive analysis has been conducted by Pamela Allen to 12 Indonesian novels published in 1980-1995.10 in her dissertation which is later published as a book entitled: Reading Matters: An Examination of Plurality of Meaning in Indoenisian |Fiction 1980-1995.11 Though her emphasis is on the receptive theory which gives the meaning according to the reader, the 12 novels interpretation brings us to the scope of history and nationalism, socio-cultural, until the post-modernism and post-colonialism.

Of course, there are many other studies from various approaches and contemporary theories. These facts show that in the quietness and serenity of the publication of books related to literary criticism, various researches have been conducted, although they were not printed in mass production that not many people know the result of this publication.

Based on this thought, this book can be considered as the introduction of several problems related to extrinsicality of the modern Indonesian novels. Due to various socio-cultural background of the different Indonesian literary workers, actually still a lot of things have not been revealed. An attempt to disclose the problems, will not only reveal the richness of meaningof the works themselves, but also reveal the Indonesian cultural tradition. The abundant cultural wealth is only available in a multiethnic nation like Indonesia. The cultural studies and multiculturalism are two important approach to open the opportunity for text deconstruction in its relation to the culture. The problem is that how the literary observer and researcher try to reveal and disclose the extrinsic problem in Indonesian novel.

This book, of course, still need a lot of supplement. That is our home assignment, because many Indonesian novel are waiting to be analyzed from any other aspect.

To cite several examples for this extrinsic analysis are the works of Nyoman Panji Tisna and Putu Wijaya (Bali) Korrie Layun Rampan (Dayak), Ramadhan KH or Ajip Rosidi (Sunda), Umar Kayam or Budi Darma (Jawa),Taufik Ikram Jamil (Melayu) Navis, Darman Moenir, Wisran Hadi, Gus tf Sakai (Minangkabau) and many others. Their works seem to show socio-cultural tradition which has born and grown the writers. The attempt to reveal extrinsicality of the works, will certainly be a contribution for understanding the works more completely. The answer lies on the willingness of our literary audience to make researches and reveal the treasure of Indonesian literature from the different perspectives.

1 Ronald Tanaka, System Models for Literary Macro-theory, Lisse: Peter de Rider Press, 1976.

2 The papers of both seminar were then published in a form of anthology entitled respectively as Bahasa dan Kesusastraaan sebagai Cermin Manusia Indonesia Baru (Language and Literature as a New Indonesian Reflection : Jakarta, Gunung Agung, 1967), and Tentang Kritik Sastra: Sebuah Diskusi (About Literary Criticism: a Discussion : Jakarta: Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahjasa, 1978) edited by Lukman Ali.

3 See M.S. Hutagalung, Kritik atas Kritik atas Kritik (Criticism over Criticism: Jakarta, 1978). This book comprises M.S. Hutagalung’s articles on his polemic against Arief Budiman, Goenawan Mohamad, and several literary person about the published criticism on the various Jakarta newspapers. .

4 Ibid, pg. 18.

5 Two works of Edward Said which has the significant influence in Indonesia is Orientalism (London: Penguin, 1991), and Culture and Imperialism (London: Vintage, 1994).

6 Recently, Here is established Sastra Islam subject lectured by Abdul Hadi WM. This subject describes how tradition of Sufism along with the tasawuf aesthetic and Indian culture through Hinduism and Buddhism flow and influence the Indonesian literary life, even the ethnic literature spread in several regions in Indonesia, including the Malayan literature which later form the embryo of Indonesian literature. In his criticism, Abdul Hadi reminds that not all Indonesian literary works can be approached with the western criticism and literary theory. Therefore, approached should be made according to the cultural origin of the text.

In addition, Indonesian-Chinese Literature (Sastra Peranakan) Lectured by Ibnu Wahyudi which tries to evoke the literary works of the Chinese descendants in Indonesia since 18th . Meanwhile, Maman S. Mahayana lectures literary works outside the mainstream of cannon literature. Popular literature here is also related to cultural studies. In particular, all research to the literary works needs the appropriate and relevant approaches and theoretical framework.

A seminar arranged by the Indonesian Literary Scholar Association (Himpunan Sarjana Kesusastraan Indonesia – HISKI) in Sawangan, Bogor, September 2-4, 1996, tries to raise Marginal Literature as the object of studies. Several sub-theme is proposed from this seminar, such as: (1) position and the role of marginal literature in the past, present, and future. (2) marginal literature and industry. (3) marginal literature as alternative literature, and (4) marginal literature in the pluralist society. Look, Ibnu Wahyudi (Ed.) Menyoal Sastra Marginal, Jakarta: Wedatama Widya Sastra, 2004, viii + 171 pages. It is clear that the literary research through structuralism which put the literary work as the autonomous text is not the only knife for literary analysis to evoke the treasure of the text.. The advantages of extrinsic studies is its ability to reveal more various and possibility of the text. In my opinion, therefore, structuralism an sich will bury the wealth of spirit and culture into a text graveyard called structure.

7 Lukman Ali discusses 14 novels published between 1922 and 1956 which has Minangkabau setting. All of them are written by native Minangkabau writers, such as Marah Rusli, Sitti Nurbaya and Anak dan Kemenakan; Nursinah Iskandar, Korban Perchintaan; A. Sutan Pamungkas, Pertemuan, Adinegoro =Djamaludin) Darah Muda and Asmara Jaya; Abdoel Moeis, Salah Asuhan; Nur Sutan Iskandar, Salah Pilih dan Karena Mentua, Hamka, Dijemput Mamaknya, Tenggelamnya Kapal Van Der Wijck dan Merantau ke Deli; S. Hardjosoemarto dan Aman Dt. Madjoindo, Rusmala Dewi, as well as M. Enri, Karena Anak Kandung. This book is actually originated from Lukman Ali’s papers written in the 60’s. Although the description helps us to understand the problems of Minangkabau tradition, there is no effort to update the information, therefore no new data is available in this book.

8 Jacob Sumardjo places the discussion of Selasih’s works and Hamidah under the title of “Statistik Novelis Wanita Kita” (Our Woman Writers Statistics). Other woman writers discussed under this title are Arti Purbani, Widiyawati (Balai Pustaka, 1949), and Soewarsih Djojopoespito, Manusia Bebas (Djambatan, 1975) and Marjanah (Balai Pustaka, 1959).

9 In this book, Damono discusses among others: Sitti Nurbaya by Marah Rusli, Layar Terkembang by Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana, and Belenggu by Armijn Pane.

10 Those novels are Bumi Manusia, Anak Semua Bangsa, Jejak Langkah, and Rumah Kaca (Pramoedya Ananta Toer), Burung-burung Manyar, Durga Umayi, and Burung-burung Rantau (Y.B. Mangunwijaya) Sobat, Perang, Teror, Kroco, and Byar Pet (Putu Wijaya).

11 This work is translated by Bakdi Soemanto with the title Membaca dan Membaca Lagi:Re/interpretasi Fiksi Indonesia 1980-1995 IMagelang: Indonesia Tera, 2004, xxxii = 320 pages) with the introduction by Prof. Dr. Benny H. Hoed.